| Authority / Credibility |
- Who is the author or creator?
- Do they have any qualifications and/or credentials related to the subject they're writing about?
- Are they an expert in the field? How do you know?
- Who is the publisher?
- Are there any affiliations to organizations or interest groups? What information can you find about them?
- Are there references/citations/sources included for quotations or data?
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- Even if someone has academic or professional credentials, this does not necessarily mean they are knowledgeable about the topic they're writing about.
- The intentions and/or purpose of those presenting material are often obscured.
- The distinction between advertising and informative content can be blurred, especially online.
- The Internet has made it increasingly available for anyone to present and circulate information, which has pros and cons. For more information, see Using Blogs.
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| Intended Audience / Type of Source |
- Is the information academic, industry- or trade-specific, in-depth, entertaining? Refer to the categories for Types of Sources.
- Consider the vocabulary or language that's used. Is there jargon specific to a certain discipline or industry?
- Is a certain level of prior knowledge needed to understand or engage with the material?
- Consider the publisher. Is it a university press or an academic organization? Is it a professional association? Is it a media company? Is it a large corporation?
- What are the publisher's commercial interests or ties? Where does their funding come from?
- Is the purpose educational? How do you know?
- Is there a peer-review process, fact-checkers, or editors in place who review the material before publication?
- How many advertisements are there? What are they advertising?
- Did you find the source through a library database or a general search engine?
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- More scholars are self-publishing or posting pre-print versions of their work.
- Is the information behind a paywall or is it available openly? Is it Open Access?
- It is beneficial to use a variety of different types of information. Do not rely on one source type or specific publication for all your information.
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| Purpose / Bias / Point of View |
- No piece of information is entirely neutral. Consider the biases of the creator(s).
- Does the information attempt to be presented neutrally or objectively? Do they incorporate facts, and are they cited?
- Is it based on facts, opinions, or some combination?
- Does the point of view appear objective and impartial?
- Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional, or personal biases?
- To what extent is the information trying to convince its audience of something?
- Who is responsible for its circulation?
- What is the purpose of the information? Is it to inform, teach, sell, entertain, or persuade?
- Is the creator/author trying to sell you something?
- Do the authors/sponsors make their intentions or purpose clear?
- If the author has a position, is it well-reasoned and supported by empirical evidence?
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- Every piece of information has implicit bias. This is not inherently bad, but it is good to be critically aware of the creator's perspective.
- The intentions of those presenting information may be unclear.
- Distinction between advertising and information is blurred on Web.
- If you are going to use a source that is biased, you want to make sure that the position reflected is supported by ample evidence.
- You also want to acknowledge any bias in your paper or article.
- To strengthen your argument, cover a variety of points of view
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| Currency |
- How recent is the information?
- Is the information up-to-date?
- Is it current enough for your topic?
- Has it been updated or revised?
- Is the publication/copyright date clearly labeled?
- Have new situations risen or information become available that put the source in a new light?
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- Dates not always included on Web pages
- If included, a date may have various meanings:
- Date information first written
- Date information placed on Web
- Date information last revised
- Remember that just because the webpage has been updated recently, that doesn't mean that all of the information on the webpage has necessarily been updated.
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| Coverage / Scope |
- What topics are included in the work?
- Is the scope broad or narrow?
- Are the topics included explored in depth?
- Is the coverage adequate?
- Are references to additional sources provided?
- Are many sides of the topic covered?
- Is there evidence to back up the arguments?
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- Be sure the source has the kind of coverage of the topic that you want before you decide to use it.
- Web version may differ from print version of same title
- Often hard to determine extent of Web coverage
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| Relevancy |
- Does the information relate to your topic or answer your question?
- Is the information at an appropriate level (i.e., not too elementary or advanced for your needs)?
- Have you looked at a variety of sources before determining this is one you will use?
- Would you be comfortable using this source for a research paper?
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- You may find something to be interesting, but make sure it has a place in your main argument.
- Use a variety of sources and types of information to strengthen your argument
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| Accuracy / Objectivity / Bias |
- Where does the information come from?
- How reliable and free from error is the information? How do you know?
- Were there editors and fact checkers?
- Is the information supported by evidence?
- Has the information been reviewed or refereed?
- Can you verify the information in another source or from personal knowledge?
- Is the content primarily opinion? Or is it balanced with multiple points of view?
- Does the language or tone seem unbiased and free of emotion?
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- Crosscheck the information with other sources.
- Anyone can publish on the Web
- Look at the editorial process, or lack thereof
- Web pages move; social media accounts are deleted. If you quote this source, will it be available later?
- Web pages are susceptible to accidental and deliberate alteration.
- Current information is more likely to be accurate, especially for news and scientific information
- Late-breaking news may be wrong or substantially reinterpreted as more credible information comes to light.
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| Statistics |
- Who gathered the data? Why are they gathering it?
- How did they collect the data? Was the data self-reported?
- What questions were asked? Did they include leading questions?
- What is the sample size? Is it large enough to be significant?
- Who is reporting the data? Why?
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- Always check the sample size.
- Look at how the data has been framed
- Look at how the data has been presented, especially for tables and graphs
- Correlation is not causation
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| Usability |
- Is it easy to navigate and read?
- Is there a Table of Contents, Index, or page numbers to guide you?
- Is there a contents page, site map, or navigation bar?
- Are special plug-ins required?
- Is it mobile-friendly?
- Are there a lot of advertisements? Are they easy to avoid?
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- How useful is a source if it is difficult to navigate
- Usability is closely tied to format and purpose
- Do the advertisements overwhelm the content
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